Application of life cycle assessment (LCA) in reducing waste and developing co-products in food processing
U. Sonesson , in Handbook of Waste Management and Co-Product Recovery in Food Processing, Volume 2, 2009
Dietary fibre
Beet-pulp has been reported as one of the main ingredients in feed concentrate for cattle in South-Western Sweden (Cederberg and Flysjö, 2004), providing fibre and balancing the protein in the food ration. Dried beet pulp is, together with molasses, a co-product from the sugar production and price allocation was used when distributing the resource use and emissions from cultivation and transport to the sugar industry: 80% sugar, 15% beetpulp and 5% molasses (Cederberg and Flysjö, 2004). The equivalences are calculated on a dry matter (DM) basis as follows: 1 kg dietary fibre = 0.96 kg DM dietary fibre = 0.96 kg DM beet-pulp = 1.07 kg beet-pulp.
Jan Erik Lindberg , in Equine Applied and Clinical Nutrition, 2013
Pectin-rich feedstuffs
In feedstuffs such as beet pulp, citrus pulp and soybean hulls a large part of the dietary fiber fraction is made up of pectin (uronic acid). In general, the energy content in this group of feedstuffs is high. The energy value for beet pulp (13.8 MJ DE and 12.3 MJ metabolizable energy (ME)) and citrus pulp (14.4 MJ DE and 12.8 MJ ME) are comparable to the energy value for regular oats (13.1 MJ DE and 11.9 MJ ME) (Tables 17-1 and 17-6).
Soaking in water prior to feeding is often recommended when larger meals (>0.5 kg) of beet pulp is fed in order to minimize the risk of esophageal obstruction due to impaction with dry feed. However, esophageal impaction is a problem that has been reported to occur when ingesting other feedstuffs and may also be related to other factors (Feige at al 2000).
Pectin-rich feedstuffs, as well as fructo-oligosaccharides, sugar-alcohols and gums, are extensively fermented in the hindgut (Sunvold et al 1995, Coenen et al 2006). However, the rate and extent of fermentation will vary considerably between fiber sources and has to be considered when formulating rations for performance horses. Inclusion levels of up to 3.0 g sugar beet pulp/kg BW per day (in dry form) has been used to adult horses without any negative effects on overall nutrient utilization and performance (Lindberg & Jacobsson 1992, Lindberg & Palmgren Karlsson 2001, Palmgren Karlsson et al 2002). Moore-Colyer et al (2000) concluded that sugar beet pulp could be used as an alternative to hay as the forage component of the diet without compromising hindgut function. However, sugar beet pulp is more completely and rapidly fermented by the cecal microflora than is hay (Hyslop et al 1999). In addition, it has been shown that a significant proportion of the sugar beet pulp (18% of the organic matter and 13% of the total NSP) is disappearing in the small intestine during transit to the hindgut (Moore-Colyer et al 2002). In contrast to sugar beet pulp, citrus pulp appears to have low palatability when given separately as a replacement to oats. However, citrus pulp was used to replace up to 15% of the oat content without any impact on concentrate intake when included in a complete pelleted diet (Ott et al 1979a).
Soybean hulls are potentially useful as feedstuff for horses and have successfully been used to feed ruminants for a long time. The carbohydrate component in soybean hulls is characterised by a high content (~80% in DM) of dietary fiber, and with a high content (~30% in DM) of pectin (Karr-Lilienthal et al 2005, Monsoor 2005) in this fiber fraction. In contrast, the content of water soluble carbohydrates and starch is low (Karr-Lilienthal et al 2005, Rodiek & Stull 2007). Horses fed soybean hulls have a lower glycemic index compared to feeding with cereal grains and sweet feed (Rodiek & Stull 2007). Soybean hulls are more completely and rapidly fermented by the cecal microflora than is hay but are less fermentable than sugar beet pulp (Hyslop et al 1999). Moreover, a significant proportion of the soybean hulls (24% of the organic matter and 8% of the total NSP) are degraded in the small intestine during transit to the hindgut (Moore-Colyer et al 2002). Increasing substitution of alfalfa/bromegrass hay with soybean hulls (0, 25, 50, or 75% on as-fed basis) in the diet of cecally cannulated Quarter horses linearly increased cecal volatile FA production and the molar proportion of propionate, while the molar proportion of butyrate and cecal pH (7.00 to 6.45) decreased (Coverdale et al 2004). The drop in cecal pH suggests that the inclusion level of soybean hulls should be limited, probably to less than 50% of the diet.
When part of the cereal portion of the diet is replaced with beet pulp, there is an increased risk for a low dietary content of P, Cu and Zn (Table 17-2).
Patricia A. Harris , Harold C. SchottII, in Equine Applied and Clinical Nutrition, 2013
Forage should be the foundation
Forage should be the foundation of the diet for all horses. In the aforementioned US survey of feeding practices (Crandell 2002), about 80% of the horses had 24 h pasture turnout (with additional preserved forage provided some of the year). On average, 78% of the ration was forage which is higher in comparison to other sports horses (e.g. the ration of racehorses may be no more than 30% forage). Although there is currently no agreed upon requirement for dietary fiber, the inclusion of some long stem roughage in the diet is thought to be important for maintenance of hindgut function and health as well as for reduction in risk of gastric ulceration and abnormal behaviours (Goodwin et al 2002, Shirazi-Beechey 2008) and the authors currently recommend a minimum of 1.5% BW on a dry matter (DM) basis of long stem roughage or chopped long fiber (see also Chapter 26). Fiber may provide energy during an endurance ride via absorption of volatile fatty acids (acetate, propionate) produced by fermentation that continues long after the fiber has been ingested. Propionic acid from hindgut fermentation of fiber is also an important substrate for gluconeogenesis (Ford & Simmons 1985).
Some fiber sources (e.g., beet pulp, soya hulls) may augment the size of the large intestinal fluid reservoir, which may represent as much as 8–10% of bodyweight and 10–20% of total body Na, K and Cl (Meyer & Coenen 1989, Warren et al 2001, Parsons et al 2011). This may assist in the maintenance of hydration during exercise by acting as a reservoir for both water and electrolytes (Meyer & Coenen 1989). Extrapolating from studies in ponies (Meyer & Coenen 1989) during low intensity exercise, approximately 10 liters of water, 19 g of Na and 10 g of Cl may be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract of horses during 2–3 h of exercise, potentially offsetting some of the sweat water and electrolyte losses that occur during endurance rides (Geor & Harris 2005). Recent work has suggested that differences in dietary fiber type, which affect total body water, may also influence core temperature during endurance type exercise (Spooner et al 2007). However, the potential benefits of a high-fiber diet with respect to improved water and electrolyte balance must be weighed against possible energetic disadvantages associated with an increase in hindgut weight (bowel ballast: Kronfeld 2001a, Chapter 26). The optimal mix of dietary fiber types is not known but it is common for endurance horses to consume a variety of fiber sources, including long stem hay, beet pulp and soya hulls (Kronfeld 2001b). Recent work has suggested that organic matter, DM and neutral detergent fiber digestibility may be higher after endurance conditioning but these adaptations were not systematically associated with a longer total tract mean retention time nor an increase in microbial fibrolytic activity (Goachet et al 2010).
Key Points –
Forage feeding
Practical recommendations include:
•
Feeding preferably 1.5–2.0 kg (DM basis) per 100 kg bodyweight of long stem roughage or chopped long fiber
•
Avoiding overly mature forages, due to reduced digestibility and possibly reduced water reservoir capacity.
•
Selecting hay with a low to moderate protein content (i.e., grass hay with crude protein [CP] of 8–14%) rather than a legume hay (often with CP >20%) because of concerns regarding a high protein intake (see below). A good quality grass hay or a grass/alfalfa mix in which alfalfa is no more than 30% of the mix is recommended
•
Avoiding high intakes of calcium-rich forages (i.e., alfalfa) due to the perceived increased risk of synchronous diaphragmatic flutter ("thumps") during endurance rides when horses are fed a high calcium ration
•
Appropriate vitamin/mineral and possibly protein fortification will be required especially in highly forage based rations
Distension of the stomach with feed or a phytobezoar or trichobezoar
Epidemiology
Species, Age, Sex
Foals may be predisposed to indiscriminate hair ingestion, resulting in trichobezoar formation
Risk Factors
•
Feeding poor-quality roughage or certain feed stuffs such as beet pulp and wheat bran, which may not be adequately hydrated by saliva and gastric fluid contents
•
Poor dentition resulting in inadequate mastication
•
Concurrent gastrointestinal (GI) disease, resulting in generalized decreased GI motility
•
Pyloric outflow obstruction (see "Gastric Outflow Obstruction" in this section)
Associated Conditions and Disorders
Horses with acute or chronic hepatic disease have an increased incidence of gastric impaction, although the direct relationship between the two conditions is poorly understood.
Clinical Presentation
History, Chief Complaint
•
Inappetence or anorexia
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Colic (variable severity)
Physical Exam Findings
•
Variable; may be within normal limits.
•
Mild to moderate tachycardia and tachypnea and evidence of mild to moderate dehydration (prolonged skin tent, tacky mucous membranes, and prolonged capillary refill time) are frequently observed.
•
Gross abdominal distension is uncommon unless a concurrent distal intestinal obstruction is present.
•
Rectal examination
○
Often within normal limits in primary gastric impaction, although caudal displacement of the spleen may be appreciated.
○
Small intestinal or large colonic distension may be noted if an accompanying distal intestinal obstruction has predisposed to the gastric impaction.
Etiology and Pathophysiology
•
Feed material accumulates within the stomach with:
○
Consumption of large amounts of poor-quality roughage or dry feed stuffs
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Dehydration or limited water intake
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Impaired gastric emptying caused by pyloric outflow obstruction or more distal intestinal obstruction
•
Bezoar formation
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Persimmon seed or hair ingestion may result in formation of a phytobezoar or trichobezoar, respectively.
○
A large bezoar may obstruct the pylorus, or a small bezoar may obstruct the duodenum, resulting in impaired gastric outflow.
•
Idiopathic gastric impaction infrequently occurs as a primary cause of colic in the absence of a specific predisposing or concurrent cause.
Stabilizers, Colorants, and Exopolysaccharides in Yogurt
Kunal M. Gawai , ... Jashbhai B. Prajapati , in Yogurt in Health and Disease Prevention, 2017
3.2.1.2 Pectin
Pectin is made by extracting citrus peel, apple pomace, or beet pulp with hot dilute mineral acid at pH 1.5–3.5. The extract is then filtered, and pectin is precipitated from the clear extract with the synthetic solvents ethanol or isopropanol or as a copper or aluminum salt (Anon, 2007, 2014a). Pectin is used as a popular stabilizer in products that require a natural label perception. However, pectin is expensive and may be used along with locust bean gum as a stabilizer in many fruit-on-bottom-style yogurt preparations (Hoefler, 2004). Pectin is allowed in organic yogurt, even though it is derived from nonorganic fruit. While the organic standards allow the use of pectin, the US Department of Agriculture specifies that only "nonamidated" forms of pectin may be used in organic foods. Amidated pectin is a modified form of pectin. Some of the galacturonic acid is converted with ammonia to carboxylic acid amide. These pectins are more tolerant to varying calcium concentrations, hence they produce firm gel (Belitz et al., 2004). Amidated pectin is produced by suspending dried pectin in alcohol and then treating it with ammonia, which changes the chemical structure of the pectin. Amidated pectin, treated with ammonia, is prohibited in organic yogurt but can be used in conventional yogurt (Anon, 2014a).
Pectins are commonly used alone or in combination with other hydrocolloids to stabilize stirred and set yogurt. The stabilizer system used in yogurt mix preparations is generally a combination of various vegetable stabilizers to which gelatin may be added. Their ratios as well as the final concentration (generally 0.5%–0.7%) in the product are carefully controlled to get the desired effects (Chandan, 2004). Low-methoxy (LM) pectin is the preferred type for (refrigerated) cup yogurt and high-methoxy (HM) pectin is preferred to ensure stability and control viscosity in acidified milk drinks. LM in very small amount (0.07%–0.15%) modifies the consistency of the yogurt making it stiffer and preventing syneresis that might arise during handling, transportation, and distribution. HM pectin stabilizes the milk proteins to produce products without sedimentation, whey separation and ensures a smooth mouthfeel without "sandiness" (Chandan and O'Rell, 2006).
Gastroenterology 2. Hepatic and intestinal disorders
Tim S. Mair , Sandy Love , in Equine Medicine, Surgery and Reproduction (Second Edition), 2012
3.15 Gastric impaction
Gastric impaction is uncommon but may occur as a result of:
•
Feeding poor quality roughage or certain feed stuffs like beet pulp and wheat bran, which may not be adequately hydrated by saliva and gastric fluid contents.
•
Poor dentition resulting in inadequate mastication.
•
Concurrent gastrointestinal disease, resulting in generalized decreased gastrointestinal motility.
•
Pyloric outflow obstruction.
•
Horses with acute or chronic hepatic disease have an increased incidence of gastric impaction, though the direct relationship between the two conditions is poorly understood.
•
Bezoar formation. Persimmon seed or hair ingestion can result in formation of a phytobezoar or trichobezoar respectively. A large bezoar may obstruct the pylorus, or a small bezoar may obstruct the duodenum, resulting in impaired gastric outflow.
Clinical signs of gastric impaction include inappetence/anorexia and colic (of variable severity). Idiopathic gastric impaction occasionally occurs as a primary cause of colic in the absence of a specific predisposing or concurrent cause (Figure 3.7).
Definitive diagnosis is difficult and is often made during exploratory celiotomy due to protracted and unrelenting pain. Trans-abdominal ultrasonography may be helpful (caudal displacement of the gastric contour). Gastroscopy does not allow accurate determination of gastric size, although identification of feed material at the level of the cardia in a fasted horse is consistent with a gastric impaction. The persistence of a large amount of feed material on serial examinations over 24–36 hours or longer in a fasted horse is needed for a presumptive gastroscopic diagnosis of gastric impaction.
Treatment
1.
Withhold all feed and limit water intake (risk of gastric rupture)
2.
Medical therapy:
•
Promote hydration of gastric contents and breakdown of the impaction:
Intravenous fluid therapy.
Intragastric administration of isotonic fluids and laxatives (small volumes via gravity flow).
Administration of 0.5 to 1 L of Coca-cola™ via nasogastric tube every 12–24 hours can aid the breakdown of impacted material in both feed impactions and persimmon phytobezoars.
•
Gastric lavage via a large bore nasogastric tube.
•
Analgesic therapy.
•
Prokinetic therapy is not recommended unless a pyloric or intestinal obstruction has been ruled out.
3.
Surgery. Surgical resolution of a gastric impaction or removal of a gastric bezoar via gastrotomy is extremely challenging in adult horses due to limited surgical exposure and inability to exteriorize the stomach, resulting in substantial risk for abdominal contamination at surgery.
Changes to diets that are rapidly fermentable such as high-carbohydrate feeds (grain) and roughage with a high surface area (mowed grass) are commonly associated with tympany. In some horses, beet pulp appears to cause excessive gas production.
•
There is an association between tapeworm infestation and tympany.
•
Other factors that have been associated with simple obstruction and gas distension of the large colon (eg, impaction) include history of previous colic, recent (past 4 weeks) lameness, travel in the past 24 hours, recent change in exercise, increasing time spent stabled, crib biting or windsucking, increasing time since last dental examination, and longer than 12 months since deworming with ivermectin or moxidectin.
New business and marketing concepts for cross-sector valorization of food waste
A. Parvathy Eswari , ... J. Rajesh Banu , in Food Waste to Valuable Resources, 2020
20.4.1 Fruit and vegetable waste
There are some biobased recovered products that are produced on a commercial scale that have high marketability. Europe is a major producer of sugar beet, at 13 million tonnes/year. Sugar beet processing units create beet pulp as a waste product which is processed by a PULP2VALUE approach to extract a valuable compound—microcellulose fiber. This fiber has a high marketing value for manufacturing detergents, oils, paints, personal care substances, and coatings (Yang et al., 2018). One of the leading companies, Royal Cosun, has utilized the PULP2VALUE approach and developed a full-scale plant to produce bioproducts. This product has a market potential of 350 tonnes, with a value of 200 million euros. Another innovative research is Pro-Enrich, which utilizes rapeseed pressed cake, olive pomace, tomato, and citrus waste to generate bioproducts using research designed by the Danish Technological Institute (Denmark). The biobased recovered products generated include protein, polyphenols, pigments, and dietary fibers which are utilized as food additives, animal feed, cosmetics, and adhesives. Global Bioenergies in France has organized an OPTISOCHEM approach to extract isobutene from wheat straw. This extracted product has been used for producing high-value marketable products such as lubricants, flavor agents, fragrances, and sealants. The yield of this isobutene from wheat straw is 20% greater than from fossil fuel-based substances. Food grade protein powder (RuBisCO) is unique in nature as it is extracted from discarded vegetal processing industry waste in an industrial scale. This product has two to five times higher market value than the current artificial protein powder. Phenolic compounds and carotenoid pigment are extracted from paprika, red chili, red pepper, and capsicum species (Yammine et al., 2017). Carotenoid pigment has good market value as a coloring agent.
Reducing waste in fresh produce processing and households through use of waste as animal feed
J. Zentek , ... A. Mader , in Global Safety of Fresh Produce, 2014
11.5.1 Byproducts of sugar production
Sugar beet
Sugar cane and sugar beet are the primary crops for the production of sugar. Molasses represents the run-off syrup obtained at the final stage of crystallization, which can be used as feed. Depending on the process, exhausted beet pulp has a dry matter content of 8–15%, and therefore requires dewatering, which is usually performed by mechanical pressing and thermal drying (Schieber et al., 2001). The shelf-life of pressed pulp, an energy-rich feed, can be extended considerably by ensiling (Heller, 1998). Damaged beets and roots obtained during washing can also be used in animal feeding (Mirzaei-Aghsaghali and Maheri-Sis, 2008). An overview of the applicability of sugar beet pulp in livestock feeding is provided by Kelly (1983).
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